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DIAMONDS. PEARLS 
and PRECIOUS STONES 



WHERE THEY ARE FOUND, 
HOW CUT, AND MADE 
READY FOR USE IN THE 
JEWELER'S ART, THEIR 
COMPOSITION AND VALUE 

"By 

MARCELL N. SMITH 



WITH SIXTEEN 
ILLUSTRATIONS 



Prinitd for SMITH PATTERSON COMPANY A; 
GRIFFITH-STILLINGS PRESS, BOSTON, MASS. 

I9I3 



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TS75a 

.567 



COPYRIGHT BY MARCELL N. SMITH 
BOSTON, MASS., I913 

PUBLISHED DECEMBER, I9I3 




JAN -9 1314 



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tDljoge lopal fittpport for more 
tban t()ittp=fiii)e pears bas 
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enUeaiJor to serDe t^ftm better 



Preface 

The purpose of this book has been primarily 
to give assistance to the employees of the 
Smith Patterson Company in understanding 
more fully the diamond, pearl, and colored gem 
business by giving them, in a condensed and 
accurate form, information that the writer con- 
siders useful. Although he is aware that many 
larger works already exist which cover the 
field in a most excellent and comprehensive 
manner, yet from the very fact that there is 
such an excellent body of gem literature, it 
is often hard to obtain a concise and accurate 
idea of the most interesting points in this field 
without the labor of extensive study. 

The object of the writer has been to present 
the most important facts concerning the nature 
of diamonds, pearls, and other gems, and the 
most interesting aspects in the work of discover- 
ing and cutting or preparing gems for the arts, 
and to give such facts as will be of interest not 
only to the man in the business, but also to 
many admirers of precious stones. 



In preparing the following pages the works of 
many authors have been drawn from. In 
particular the writer acknowledges valuable 
assistance from: 

"Diamond Mines of South Africa," by G. F. 
Williams. "A Book of Precious Stones," by Julius 
Wodiska. "Precious Stones and Gems," by E. W. 
Streeter. "Gems and Gem Minerals," by Dr. O. C. Far- 
rington. "Hand Book of Precious Stones," by M. D. 
Rothschild. "Gem Cutter's Craft," by Leopold Clare- 
mont. 

He is also under obligations for valuable assistance 
rendered by Mr. Ernest G. H. Schenck, Mr. Ludwig Nissen, 
Mr. Henry Kryn, Mr. Lucien Zell, Mr. Joshua W. 
Mayer, and to his son. Nelson H. Smith, for aid in pre- 
paring the volume; and to Messrs. Schenck & Van Haelen 
for original photographs of their cutting establishment; 
Mr. Julius Wodiska for assistance and illustrations 
from "A Book of Precious Stones"; Mr. Meyer D. Roths- 
child for assistance and illustrations from the mines of 
the American Gem & Pearl Co.; J. B. Lippincott Co. 
for illustration from W. R. Cattelle's book, "The Pearl"; 
G. P. Putnam's Sons for colored illustration, "Emeralds 
from Muso Mine." 



Contents 



Page 

The Diamond ii 

The Cutting and Polishing of Diamonds ... 24 

Diamond Mountings 39 

The Pearl 42 

The Tariff on Diamonds, Pearls, and Precious 

Stones 50 

Precious and Semiprecious Stones 53 

The Ruby 54 

The Sapphire 58 

The Emerald 62 

The Aquamarine 65 

The Tourmaline (yj 

The Alexandrite 70 

The Opal 72 

The Amethyst 74 

The Moonstone 76 

The Turquoise ']'] 

The Chrysolite 79 

The Spinel 81 

The Topaz 84 

The Garnet 87 

The Zircon 91 

Lapis Lazuli 92 

Hiddenite and Kunzite 94 

Table of Precious and Semiprecious Stones . . 96 



Illustrations 



Emerald from the Muso Mine, Bogota, Colombia, South 

America Frontispiece 

Facing 
• Page 

One Day's Diamond Wash at the Kimberley Mines .... 12 

Kafir Employees Gambling in the Compound, Kimberley 

Mines 16 

The Cullinan Diamond 18 

Actual size in the rough. 
Sorting the Gravel for Diamonds at the Kimberley Mines . 22 

The Cullinan Diamond 26 

AH the stones illustrated were cut from the Cullinan Diamond 
and are here shown half actual size. 

The Diamond Saw 28 

The saw with diamond being sawed is seen at the left of the 
bench. 

The Cutting of a Diamond 30 

One stone is seen in the lathe, while the other is fixed in the end 
of the tool held by the workman. 

The Diamond Polisher's Wheel 32 

The workman is adjusting the dop containing a diamond, pre- 
paratory to polishing. 

Office of a Diamond-Cutting Establishment 38 

Schenck & Van Haelen, New York. 

The Rajah of Dholpur 44 

Whose pearls were valued at $7,500,000. 

Native Indian Ruby Cutter at Work 54 

Gem Cutting in Ceylon 58 

Aquamarine Mine, Mitchell County, North Carolina . , 66 

Tourmaline Mine, Palo, California 68 

Scene in Azure Turquoise Mine, New Mexico 78 



The Diamond 

The diamond is composed solely of pure 
carbon and is the hardest substance known, 
being No. lo on the Mohl scale. It is found in 
South Africa, Brazil, India, Borneo, in the 
Ural Mountains, and in the United States. 

The ancient supply of diamonds came prob- 
ably from India. Although we hear of dia- 
monds in very early times, yet the ancient 
Indian mines were apparently the first source 
of supply and continued so until diamonds 
were found in Borneo, which was only in small 
amounts, and later more largely in Brazil. 
The Brazilian mines were discovered in 1727 Brazilian 
and were later mined extensively. Mr. Edwin -^^"^J" 
W. Streeter, the London jeweler, in his book 
published in 1879, states that about 1845 
there were twenty-five thousand people en- 
gaged in diamond digging in Brazil. 
,, In South Africa diamonds were first found South 
' in 1867. The first diggings — they could hardly ■^P'^^^ 
be called mines — were along the Vaal River. 
These river diggings were of considerable extent, 



12 DIAMONDS 

and a large number of miners from all parts 
of the world were engaged in searching for 
stones. Their methods, however, were very 
crude. The famous rush to Kimberley began 
in 1870, when a fine fifty-carat diamond was 
found on the Jagersfontein farm. The thrifty 
widow who was then the owner of the farm 
let the right to dig diamonds at £2 per month 
for a claim of twenty feet square. Important 
diamonds were next discovered on the Dutoits- 
fontein farm, and soon diamonds were also 
found on the Bulfontein farm located just 
across the highway. 
■Kimberley The Kimberley mines were discovered In 
Mines jgyi^ and the DeBeers and Wesselton about 
the same time. It is needless to say that the 
system of leasing claims did not last very 
long, and that these various farms were soon 
bought by miners. For some time, however, 
the various claims were worked by one or two 
men to each claim, then by larger partnerships, 
and later by large French and English mining 
companies. 

In 1872 Cecil J. Rhodes, then a student at 
Oxford University, on account of ill health went 
to South Africa. He went first to the plantation 
of his brother, Herbert Rhodes, who had also 
become interested in diamond mining. A 



DIAMONDS 13 

year later he joined his brother in his mining 
ventures. This same year, 1873, Barnett J. 
Barnatto came from London to join his brother, 
Henry, at Kimberley, as a buyer of rough dia- 
monds. Both Rhodes and Barnatto soon 
acquired some property and became interested 
as small mine owners. They increased these 
holdings rapidly, until after a time both saw 
the need of combination in mine ownership 
and especially the need of scientific management 
in operating the mines. In 1888, they, with 
Messrs. Rothschild, Alfred Beit, and other 
able mining men, formed the DeBeers Con- The DeBeers 
solidated Mines, Ltd. Since the formation of <^om^^ny 
this company the mines have been developed 
along scientific lines by an extremely able 
management, resulting in great benefit to the 
company and also to the world. 

Since the formation of the syndicate the 
price of the gems has never been allowed to 
break, — even in times of the greatest com- 
mercial depression. In the early days of 
diamond mining, on the other hand, and 
especially in India and Brazil, prices sometimes 
fluctuated very widely. Mr. Streeter, as an 
example, states that at the time of the com- 
mercial crisis of 1857 the prices of Brazilian 
diamonds fell to one half that of the year previous. 



i6 DIAMONDS 

compound or walled enclosure, within which 
they must remain constantly during the whole 
period of their work until they are discharged 
from the mines. 
Life in the These compounds are some seventeen in 
Compound number, the largest being at the DeBeers. 
miines, where four acres are enclosed; the walls 
are ten feet in height and the compound is 
covered with a fine wire screen to prevent the 
throwing of diamonds outside to a confederate. 
The huts of galvanized iron for the workmen 
are built in the compound, and there is also a 
swimming pool and other means of amusement, 
so that the natives, while virtually prisoners 
within the compound, are well cared for. When 
they leave the employ of the company they 
are again searched in the most thorough fashion, 
being stripped and then placed in a detention 
room provided only with a blanket. Here they 
are kept for a period of five to seven days, so 
that even if the men swallow diamonds it is 
impossible for them to escape with their treas- 
ures. Finally they are given their old clothes, 
which have been kept in sacks numbered for 
each man, and allowed to leave the compound. 
Treatment of The diamonds are found in what is called 
Blueground Hueground, which when mined is about as 
hard as sandstone. After being excavated 



DIAMONDS 17 

from the mines the blueground is conveyed to 
t]iQ floors — large flat areas — where it isle ft 
from three to six months, or more, to soften. 
These floors are very large, those of the DeBeers 
and Kimberley mines covering two thousand 
acres. The blueground on the floors is har- 
rowed by steam traction engines to assist in 
pulverizing the ground. This, with the action 
of the sun and rain, finally disintegrates the 
material so that it can be taken to the washing 
machines or pulsators, as they are technically 
called. The yield of diamonds per load of blue- 
ground is very small, but by the careful and 
comprehensive methods used, practically no dia- 
monds are lost and the total yield is very large. 

Of the South African mines the Kimberley ^^^^f!^^ 
and DeBeers have until recently produced most j^i^^^ 
of the diamonds. These mines have now been 
worked so deep, about three thousand feet, that, 
owing to the heat and danger at that depth, 
they are at present considered about worked 
out and comparatively few stones now come 
from these mines. The Dutoitspan mines are 
at present the largest producing mines in South 
Africa, and give very sound material, about the 
same as that of the Kimberley, DeBeers, and Wes- 
selton. The Bulfontein in point of production 
is the second largest mine under the DeBeers 



i8 DIAMONDS 

control. Its rough runs rather small in sizes 
and is quite imperfect. From the Jagersfon- 
tein mine, commonly called Jagers (pronounced 
Yagus) are found some of the finest blue-white 
stones in the world, although there are other 
qualities of stones found there as well. The 
Premier mine, also controlled by the DeBeers 
Company, produces some very remarkable 
stones. From this mine came the famous Cul- 
linan diamond, which weighed in the rough 
3,2535^ carats. This stone was of fine blue- 
white color and remarkably free from imperfec- 
tions. 
The Cullinan The gem was bought by the Transvaal Govern- 
ment for £200,000 and v/as sent as a present to 
King Edward VII, who entrusted the cutting of 
the Cullinan to Messrs. Joseph Asscher & Co., 
of Amsterdam, who received £10,000 for their 
work. From it were cut, besides several smaller 
stones, two diamonds, each of which was larger 
than any other diamond in the world. In the 
Premier mine was also recently found the 
second largest diamond in the world, weighing 
1,640 carats. This stone was not very perfect 
and was bought by Mr. Jac. Kryn, of Antwerp, 
to be cut into small stones. The beautiful 
deep blue diamonds which were on exhibition 
in the spring of 19 12 at the store of Smith 



DIAMONDS 19 

Patterson Company were from the Premier 
mines. Many other remarkable stones in 
golden brown, canary, green, etc., are found in 
the Premier mines. 

The Wesselton mines as a rule produce fine 
white diamonds. The Robert Victor mine, of 
South Africa, is an independent mine controlled 
by English capital. The diamonds from this 
mine are of a very fine color, but are also very 
imperfect. 

In addition to the regular mines in South River 
Africa diamonds are found in certain rivers. -^^^^^^"-^ 
These diamonds are now mined by damming 
up the river at various points, pumping it dry 
and dredging it. The river diamonds in the 
rough can always be recognized by their dull 
surface, which is accounted for by the scratching 
due to the constant rubbing against pebbles and 
other diamonds while being carried down by the 
stream. River diamonds vary very greatly as 
to quality. 

Of the stones found in the mines in the German 
German possessions in South America nearly -^^^^-^ 
all are small and practically all are cut into 
melees. They are largely, however, of very good 
quality, and a large part of the best melees now 
come from the German mines. 

For many years the DeBeers Consolidated 



20 DIAMONDS 

London Mines, Ltd., has sold its annual production to 
Syndicate ^j^^ London Syndicate of diamond merchants, 
who handle most of the products of the mines of 
South Africa, with the exception of the German 
mines. The London Syndicate's methods of 
conducting business are quite unusual. In 
general the procedure is as follows. When the 
managers have a lot of goods for sale they notify 
the buyers of the rough who are on their list 
as being entitled to buy from the Syndicate 
direct, that a "sight of the goods" may be had 
on a certain date. The buyer must declare his 
intention and make application some time in 
advance of the time when a sight of the goods 
is expected, in order to secure the opportunity 
to make his purchase. If the favored buyer 
who is allowed to buy the rough does not then 
buy, he is omitted from the purchasing list for 
several months. The goods are sold in lots of 
some ^200,000 in value and upwards, and must 
be paid for in spot cash. The prices are absolute. 
Classification The goods mined at South Africa are sorted 
of Diamonds ^^^ classified at Kimberley as follows: 

I. Close goods 

/ 2. Spotted stones 

J 3. Rejection cleavage 

4. Fine cleavage 

5. Light brown cleavage 



DIAMONDS 21 

6. Ordinary and rejection cleavage 

7. Flats 

8. Naats 

9. Rubbish 
10. Boart 

Close Goods are supposed to be pure stones of 
desirable shapes. Spotted Stones are crystals 
slightly spotted. Rejection Stones are those 
seriously depreciated by spots. Cleavage are 
broken stones. Flats are flat crystals. The 
refuse classed as Rubbish and Boart is polishing Classification 
material. The first eight classes are supposed According 
to be further subdivided according to shades, 
as follows: 

Blue white L/ 

First Cape 

Second Cape 

First bye 

Second bye 

Off color 

Light yellow 

Yellow 

Only the first grade or close goods are really 
carefully graded according to these eight 
shades. With the other grades the sorters 
are less particular. Each color is again sub- 
divided into several sizes, and when the goods 



22 DIAMONDS 

arrive in London the Syndicate again sorts 
them into 

Finest extra blue white, Fine Capes 

Extra blue white, Capes 

Finest blue white. Eyewaters 

Blue white, Yellows 

Finest white, Finest light brown 

White, Light brown 

Silver Capes, Brown and dark brown 

All these colors are divided into shipments of 
Closed Goods, Spotteds, Irregulars, Blocks, Naats, 
and Flats. 
Colors of While diamonds are found in many colors the 
Diamonds -^g^^i colors are white and yellow of various 
shades. The Jagers stones are largely blue 
white and in the trade blue-white stones are 
frequently called Jagers {Yagus). The dia- 
monds from the Wesselton mines are usually of 
fine white color, and goods of this color are 
generally termed Wesseltons. All Capes and 
Byewaters have some tinge of yellow. Brown 
diamonds, if light enough, are quite desirable, 
and often mount up to better appearance than 
the best Silver Capes. 

Fancy stones of remarkable shades. Golden 
Brown, Apple Green, Deep Blue, Canary, etc., 
if of fair size, are of much more value than blue 



DIAMONDS 23 

white, varying according to the specimen. The 
most valuable of all diamonds are the red. This 
color is very rarely found, and there are only 
a few specimens of it in existence. 

Old Mine stones are supposed to be fine blue- ^^j MiW 
white or extra fine white stones from the old 
Brazilian or Indian Mines, and originally were 
always cut in such a manner as to save the most 
weight; consequently, they were frequently very 
thick and of poor shape. Today we hear very 
little about Old Mine stones, since as fine stones 
have been found in South Africa as were ever 
found in the Old Mines, and those that are 
shown as Old Mine stones are generally "fakes," 
coming from regular sources. 



The Cutting and Polishing 
OF Diamonds 

Diamond cutting and polishing originated in 
India, and the art was afterwards introduced 
in Italy and in Paris. It had its beginning in 
Antwerp, about 1480, and also about the same 
time in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has become 
famous for its diamond cutting, and for a long 
time had by far the largest number of cutting 
and polishing establishments in the world. 

Antwerp for some years has had some of 

the largest establishments, and during the last 

six years has gained rapidly on Amsterdam, 

and at the present time has a considerably 

larger business in the cutting and polishing 

of diamonds than Amsterdam. 

Improvement Diamond cutting has been carried on in 
in Diamond a • r cr^ j ^i. ^^• 

Cutting America tor nity years or more, and the cuttmg 

of diamonds for the world has been revolution- 
ized through the improvements in cutting made 
something like forty years ago by Henry D. 
Morse, of Boston. 

Prior to these innovations diamonds were cut 



DIAMOND CUTTING 25 

in a nearly square shape, with the corners some- 
what rounded off, — the object being to secure 
as much brilliancy and also to save as much 
weight as possible. Diamonds are now cut, as 
every one knows, practically round. The style 
of cutting may be described as follows: 

The table on the top of the stone is surrounded The Style of 
by thirty-two small facets reaching from the " *^^ 
table to the girdle, or edge of the stone. The 
back of the stone has a tiny facet at the top of 
the pyramid, formed by cutting, called the 
culet, surrounded by twenty-four facets reaching 
from the culet to the girdle. Formerly and even 
now in most of the ordinary cutting compara- 
tively little attention is paid to the girdle; but 
the better the quality of the cutting the more 
attention is paid to the desirability of having the 
girdle as thin as possible, and yet not so thin as 
to chip easily. This object is attained in the 
patented polished girdle form of cutting, which 
has an extra curved facet around the girdle. 
This cutting is protected by patents in the 
United States and in foreign countries, and in 
New England is sold direct only to the Smith 
Patterson Company. 

In describing this cutting we will quote a The Polished 
letter of March 14, 191 3, from the holders of the ^^''^^^ 
patent, Messrs. Schenck & Van Haelen. 



26 DIAMOND CUTTING 

"Before its iinal realization the quest for a 
Standard of absolute perfection in the cutting 
of a diamond has been one which ran through 
centuries of constant endeavor. 

"Incidentally it has brought into existence 
that interesting branch of the trade called 
* fancy cutting.' It has been responsible for 
many sad disappointments and disillusions. 
Witness in 1885 the short-lived 'Brilliant-Phare,' 
later revived under the name of 'Twentieth 
Century,' etc. 

"By a stroke of genius the fundamental lines 
of division governing the now classical cutting 
called 'Brilliant' were laid down some three 
hundred years ago by Vincent Peruzzi, in 
Venice. The cutting at that period was done in 
crude and primitive fashion, but it paved the 
way towards the present high achievement. 

"The latter-day Renaissance in the art of 
diamond cutting, credit for which is entirely 
due to the keen appreciation shown by the dis- 
cerning lovers of jewels in the United States of 
America, has through gradual stages of advance- 
ment developed the possibilities inherent in the 
'Brilliant,' and has culminated in the pro- 
duction of an ideal stone, the cutting of which is 
covered by patents in the United States and 
in the principal foreign countries. 



DIAMOND CUTTING 27 

"The superiority of this diamond resides in Why the 
its dominant feature: The poHshed curved q^^^iJ^^ 
facet encircling the edge of the stone, forming Best 
a continuous narrow girdle, establishing in 
harmony with every detail of its cutting a 
connecting link joining all its facets into one 
final attainment of perfection. 

"This patented Polished Girdle, with its 
resultant increase in luster and brilliancy, 
produces a maximum diffusion of light with 
corresponding depth of attraction. 

"The smooth finish of the edge protects the 
patented Polished Girdle diamond against injury 
by * chipping,' — an advantage that both setter 
and wearer will appreciate. 

"The Polished Girdle of this diamond further- 
more provides efficient means of identification; 
the cylindrically shaped facette acting as an 
indelible hall-mark embodied in the stone. 

"It is indisputably the first and only perfectly 
finished brilliant, — a Standard for all time. 

"Isolated attempts have been made more 
recently by some of the followers of Peruzzi to 
give increased luster to the brilliant by adding 
to the unfinished stone flat polished surfaces 
spaced at more or less irregular intervals, dis- 
turbing the line of circumference without attain- 
ing the desired result. It is superfluous to point 



28 DIAMOND CUTTING 

out that such makeshifts destroy their own ends. 

"To the expert jeweler and diamond dealer, no 
further explanation is necessary to make him 
realize the advantages and superiority of the 
patented Polished Girdle diamond. 

"The person more likely to be in need of 
guidance and information is the purchaser not 
thoroughly conversant with the art, and who, 
wishing to ascertain points of recognition, relies 
upon his confidence in the knowledge of ex- 
perienced jewelers." 
Proportions A properly cut diamond should have fifty- 

of Correctly ^{crht facets if regularly cut, and fifty-nine if 

Cut Diamond ^ j i- i j • 11 A i- j 

cut as a patented poiisned girdle. (Jne third 

of its size should be above the girdle and two 
thirds below, and the table should be two fifths 
the diameter of the stone. These are the cor- 
rect proportions to secure the greatest bril- 
liancy. A stone cut too deep (that is, too 
thick) lacks brilliancy, and one too shallow be- 
comes fiat in its effect and in the trade is 
termed a Fish-eye. In the cutting of the finest 
diamonds much consideration is now given 
to the girdle, while on the other hand many 
ordinary stones are cut with thick, rough gir- 
dles, which results in more weight being left 
in the stone and less expense to manufacture 
per carat, consequently a lower price to the 




THE DIAMOND SAW 



THE SAW WITH DIAMOND BEING SAWED IS SEEN AT THE 
LEFT OF THE BENCH 



DIAMOND CUTTING 29 

customer by the carat. But it must be remem- 
bered that a poorly cut stone will not look as 
large as a stone of slightly less weight, if the 
latter is well cut. 

Fine diamonds, especially those of consider- 
able size, are cut into drop shapes, navettes or 
marquise shape, square cut or emerald cut, square 
cut with steps, and oval, the last being cut like 
a round brilliant, but of oval shape. Small 
pieces from the processes of cleaving and 
sawing diamonds are generally rose cut, with flat 
back. It is due probably to this fact that the 
rose-cut stones come from the fragments that 
they are commonly termed chips. In the old 
days of cutting many of the famous stones were 
rose cut, having when properly cut twenty-four 
facets. A correctly proportioned rose should 
be one half its diameter in thickness. Smaller 
and poorer roses have twelve facets. 

Before being cut the rough diamonds are first 
examined by an expert, who decides how each 
stone shall be treated, and who then marks on 
the stone with Ink what part of the stone shall 
be removed by cleaving or sawing. In order to 
get it in proper shape for further work. 

In the process of cutting, rough diamonds are Diamond 
generally cleaved or sawed to render them ^^^^^^ 
suitable in size for cutting. If it be cleaved, 



30 DIAMOND CUTTING 

the rough diamond Is fastened with cement to 
the end of a wooden holder and a tiny groove is 
scratched with another diamond on the stone 
at the point where it is to be cleaved. The 
stone is then held by the clamp in correct 
position, and then a heavy steel blade is placed 
on the diamond, and this blade is struck a 
smart tap on the back and the stone divides 
along the line previously determined. The 
operation seems very simple, but is one that 
requires excellent knowledge of the stones as 
well as experience. 
Diamond Sawing has been used some twenty years or 
awing j^Qj-g^ ^j^^ enables the cutter to divide the stone 
along any plane, independent of its structure, 
while a diamond can be cleaved only along its 
natural cleavage lines. The diamond saw is 
about three and one half inches in diameter, and 
consists of a very thin piece of a special alloy, 
the edge of which is treated with diamond 
dust. The work is done very slowly, several 
hours being required to cut one diamond, so that 
one workman operates a large number of saws 
at the same time. 

After being cleaved or sawed the stone is 
again examined by an expert, and a plan for 
further work on that particular stone is deter- 
mined on. The most important point in this is 




THE CUTTING OF A DIAMOND 



ONE STONE IS SEEN IN THE LATHE, WHILE THE OTHER IS FIXED IN 
THE END OF THE TOOL HELD BY THE WORKMAN 



DIAMOND CUTTING 31 

the location of the table, which when decided 
upon is marked with an ink circle. 

The next step in the process is that called Diamond 
cutting. This work was done entirely by hand, ^^'^^^S 
and was called bruiting, until about twenty-five 
years ago, when machine cutting came into use. 
In machine cutting a rough diamond is fixed 
by cement in a steel holder held in a lathe and 
is cut by another diamond, which is also fixed 
into a steel holder attached to a handle some 
eighteen inches long, this latter diamond being 
held against the one in the revolving lathe and 
the cutting done much after the manner of 
wood turning. The stone is cut very rapidly 
as compared with the old method of bruiting^ 
the method which had been used from the time 
of the first cutting of diamonds until the advent 
of machine cutting. Machine cutting, however, 
can be used only for round and oval diamonds, 
and for the round ends of pear or drop shape 
diamonds. Marquise shape, square or emerald 
cut, and other fancy shapes must still be cut 
by hand. 

Diamonds are polished on a polishing wheel Diamond 
covered with diamond dust and oil. The wheel ° ^^ ^^^ 
is about eleven inches in diameter and made 
from a special casting of a secret alloy known 
only to two men, one in Amsterdam and one 



32 DIAMOND CUTTING 

in Antwerp. The wheel is set to revolve 
horizontally at the rate of about twenty-two 
hundred revolutions per minute. The time 
needed to polish a diamond, say of about one 
carat, after it has been shaped up ready for the 
wheel, is, depending on its hardness, from 
two to four days. 
Method of The diamonds to be polished were formerly 
Holding always imbedded in a composition of lead and 

UtdfTtOflCl 

Polisher tin while the metal was in an almost fluid state. 
In this case the workman sets the stone in 
position at the proper angle with a pair of 
pliers and smoothes the still almost molten 
metal with his bare fingers. It seems to the 
observer that it is a miracle that the man does 
not burn his fingers, until it is noticed that they 
have been calloused by the hot metal to a 
condition almost like that of leather. 

After each facet has been polished the dia- 
mond must be removed and reset before a new 
facet can be begun. The patent dop, invented 
about seventeen years ago, which allows the 
stone to be set at the desired angle and held 
by clamps, is about the only improvement in 
the process of polishing for many years. This 
improvement cannot, however, be used in 
the polishing of melees, marquise, square, and 
other fancy-shaped diamonds in which the 




THE DIAMOND POLISHER'S WHEEL 



THE WORKMAN IS ADJUSTING THE dop CONTAINING A DIAMOND 
PREPARATORY TO POLISHING 



DIAMOND CUTTING 33 

old-fashioned dop of soft metal must still be 
used. 

By a perfect diamond is meant in the trade The Perfect 
a diamond without flaw or spot which can be ^^^°^ 
discovered by using an ordinary watchmaker's 
glass by a person whose eyes are ordinarily 
strong. Scientifically the perfect diamond does 
not exist, as all diamonds must show imper- 
fections if a glass powerful enough be used. 
Imperfections, termed flaws or feathers, are due 
to carbon spots or minute cracks. Com- 
mercially, perfect diamonds or slightly im- 
perfect and even imperfect diamonds are equally 
staple and salable. The actual value of the 
stone is of course determined by its color, 
brilliancy, freedom from discernible imperfec- 
tions or conspicuousness of flaws if they exist, 
and size. 

The question often comes up whether dia- Can 

monds used in the United States can best be Iq^^/I ^4 ^ 

bought by diamond merchants from cutters in from 

America or from the cutters in Europe. To European 

, , , , 1 r 1 • Cutters or 

those who have made a study 01 the question American? 

there can be no doubt that in sizes from one half 

a carat and larger, the American cutters, if 

properly equipped, are able to produce and 

deliver finished diamonds to the trade in the 

United States cheaper than the same goods 



34 DIAMOND CUTTING 

could be bought and landed, duty paid, from 
European cutters. The following letter from 
Mr. Ernest G. H. Schenck, of Schenck & Van 
Haelen, explains the condition of the cutter in 
America and Europe as it is today. 

"Regarding wages ruling in American as 
against European diamond cutting centers, the 
difference which some fifteen years ago existed 
and had a bearing upon preference of purchase 
being given to Europe, has today become so 
small a factor that the tables have been effi- 
caciously turned in favor of the United States 
for all purchases of diamonds of value and 
size, not excluding some melees. 
Better "The progress made here in economic hand- 
Workmanshtp j-^^ ^£ rough merchandise has almost reached 
the point where, should the duty be removed 
from the cut as well as it is removed from the 
rough diamond, I firmly believe the industry 
would, in the United States, through better 
workmanship, triumph and grow over all others, 
even on an equal footing. 

"Several causes lie at the bottom of this: 
fifteen years ago the cost of manufacture 
represented, say, about fifteen per cent of the 
price of the finished article; today, with the 
doubled value of the rough material it repre- 
sents only about ten per cent (allowing, of 



DIAMOND CUTTING 35 

course, fully for increased wages paid for 
Improved work during that period). 

"Furthermore, If some dozen years ago, at a 
time when protection to Industries was thought 
necessary, an average duty of less than ten 
dollars per carat (ten per cent ad valorem) was 
found more than sufficient, what Is the obvious 
conclusion to be drawn today, when this same 
duty means on the same goods not less than 
double or twenty dollars per carat? 

"On the other hand, trade unionism has Trades 
increased In Europe even more and with greater ^^omsm 
reason than It has In the United States; and the 
demands have become more urgent In full ratio 
to the abuse of labor that has been practised 
in the old countries. The result has been that 
the few good artisans who had not emigrated 
to more hospitable shores, together with the 
mass of poor workers remaining over there, have 
gradually found better terms granted them, with 
shorter hours of work, than had ever been the 
case heretofore. In consequence there is today 
a constant narrowing down of the difference 
between the two scales of wages, and it will not 
be long before almost equal compensation will 
prevail In Antwerp and Amsterdam, as well as 
in America, for the best workmanship in dia- 
mond cutting. 



36 DIAMOND CUTTING 

"In a general way, this wage question could 
heretofore be summed up as follows, taking two 
hundred dollars as an average value per carat: 

I Carat, ^200.00 U. S. A. . . paid wages ^20.00 
I Carat, ^192.00 Europe.. . paid wages $12.00 

Difference $8.00 

or four per cent in favor of Europe. 

"Duty ten per cent on $192 is $19.20, from 
which, deducting balance in favor of Europe 
equaling $8, leaves $11.20, or 5.6 per cent in 
favor of the United States. 

"With the going into effect of the new Under- 
wood Tariff this percentage of difference re- 
mains the same, owing to the fact that the ratio 
in duties between cut and rough diamonds 
brought into the United States also remains 
the same, that is, the duty on cut diamonds has 
been increased to twenty per cent, whereas the 
duty on rough diamonds is now ten per cent ad 
valorem." 
Melees Melees and sizes smaller than one half carat 
can, however, be cut in Europe and landed, with 
twenty per cent duty, cheaper than they can 
be cut in America. The statements of Mr. 
Henry Kryn and other diamond cutters regard- 
ing the cost of labor per carat in the United 



DIAMOND CUTTING 37 

States and Europe, while slightly different from 

those of Mr. Schenck, show conclusively that 

Mr. Schenck's statement regarding the difference 

in cost of American and European cut goods, 

after the duty has been paid in the United 

States, is correct. 

Diamonds have, since 1898, steadily advanced Advance in 

in price and are still advancing. This is due, iJ^'^^ ^^ , 
. . . Uiamonds 

we believe, first to the difficulty in actually 

mining the world's supply of diamonds, and 
second to the fact that through the methods 
of business of the two great companies, the 
DeBeers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., and the 
London Syndicate, — which combined form 
virtually a monopoly, — they have been able to 
control the entire diamond market and to regu- 
late prices. For many years these two com- 
panies have made the diamond market secure 
and undoubtedly will continue to hold it so. 
The extent of the rise in prices has, meanwhile, 
been very great, and in a rough way it is safe 
to say that diamonds are today worth more 
than double the value of the same goods in 
1898, and in many cases more than three times 
what they were worth at that time. 

Perhaps the greatest advance in this general 
rise in value has been on fine crystal or Wessel- 
ton two grainers, or half-carat diamonds, which 



38 DIAMOND CUTTING 

have advanced to more than three times their 
value in 1898. Silver Capes and the best of 
the cheaper goods have advanced rather more 
than blue white and Wesseltons, except in the 
half-carat sizes of the latter. 



I 



Diamond Mountings 

Diamonds have been mounted into gold Platinum 
jewelry in the richer countries of the world for °^^ ^^^^ 
centuries, but an examination of the collections 
of old jewelry in the great museums of the 
world will convince any one that this ancient 
work is of interest and value only to the student 
of antiques. These ornaments were invariably 
of gold. In work of a more recent date, platinum, 
although used to a limited extent for about 
thirty years, has been used to a marked degree 
only since about 1900. In the evolution of pres- 
ent-day diamond jewelry, however, platinum has 
been the metal which has increased steadily 
in favor, until it is now practically the only 
metal used for the most elaborate and artistic 
creations. Platinum was discovered in South 
America in 1735 and in Russia in 1819. It 
has also been found in Canada and Australia. 
About nine tenths of all produced in the world 
now comes from Russia. Very little, however, 
is found, only about one per cent of platinum 
since its discovery in proportion to gold found 



40 DIAMOND MOUNTINGS 

in the same period. It is generally found in the 
sand of placer mines and the usual yield is one 
ounce of platinum to a ton of sand. 

For use it must be alloyed with iridium and 
when properly alloyed is very hard and retains 
a fine brilliant finish. As iridium is far more 
expensive even than platinum, some manu- 
facturers, in order to secure platinum at lower 
price, have not used enough iridium in their 
alloy, which has resulted in the metal becoming 
soft and turning dull or leady in color. Platinum 
of standard hardness of alloy weighs nearly 
sixty per cent more than fourteen-carat gold, 
and while fourteen-carat gold costs sixty-four 
cents per pennyweight, platinum now costs 
about ^2.50 per pennyweight. 
Comparison In computing as an example the value of a 

of Cost of diamond mounting, it might be said that a 
Material m , ... 

Mountings diamond mounting weighing ten pennyweights 

would cost for the gold $6.40; a mounting of 

the same size in platinum would weigh nearly 

sixteen pennyweight and cost nearly ^40 for 

the material. 

The cost of working platinum is also far 

greater than that of gold, but its brilliant finish 

and hardness and harmonizing color make it 

far the best metal for fine diamond and pearl 

mountings. 



DIAMOND MOUNTINGS 41 

It need hardly be added that the finest 
creations in diamond mounting can only be 
produced by artists who combine a knowledge 
and appreciation of the finest epochs and styles 
in the art of ornamentation, with the mar- 
velous technical skill of the best of the pres- 
ent-day craftsmen in platinum and precious 
metals. 



The Pearl 



Oriental Pearls are in a sense the purest of all gems, 



Pearls 



since they alone require no polishing or cutting 
at the hands of workmen, but are found in 
nature in their most finished form of perfection. 
They have been known and prized since long 
before the Christian era. They are said to 
have been known in China four thousand 
years ago. The gems occur more or less ex- 
tensively in almost every country where oysters 
or mussels are found. The pearls of the greatest 
value are the Orientals, found in the Indian 
and Pacific oceans. The famous fisheries of 
Ceylon furnish a large percentage of fine pearls, 
although the gems found there are seldom of 
large size. The Ceylon oyster is comparatively 
small, only about four inches in length and 
with a thin shell, while the oyster of the South 
Seas, Australia, and the Philippines is very 
large and thick. From these large pearl oysters 
comes the beautiful Mother of Pearl much used 
in commerce. 

The fresh-water pearls are found in streams, 



PEARLS 43 

lakes, and ponds in nearly all parts of the tern- Fresh-Water 
perate zone. American fresh-water pearls are ^ 
found largely in the Western rivers, and are 
generally of irregular shapes, either button or 
baroques, although some fine pearls have never- 
theless been found there. In fact, some very 
fine American pearls have been discovered 
which have commanded a very large price. 

The value of a pearl depends first on its luster Value of 
or orient, as it is termed in the trade; second, 
on its shape, round being the most valuable, 
next drop or pear shape, and lastly on its texture 
or skin. The skin of a fine pearl should be free 
from any wrinkles, scratches, or spots. Pearls 
increase in value in proportion to an increase 
in size much faster than does any other gem, 
and are figured unlike any other gem. For 
instance, if 

A one-grain pearl at ^5.00 base is valued at ^5.00. 
A five-grain pearl at ^5.00 base is worth ^125.00. 
A ten-grain pearl at $5.00 base is worth ^500.00. 

For a long time pearls have had a far greater 
sale in Europe than in America. All jewelers of 
much prominence abroad carry very large stocks 
of pearls. But the pearl business in America 
is now very large and gives every promise of 
increasing greatly in the future. 



44 PEARLS 

Increase in The increase In value of pearls has been going 
yaLue ^^ during the last twenty years very rapidly, 
and the increase has been far greater than is 
the case with diamonds or even with emeralds. 
The causes for this advance in price are better 
known than in the case of diamonds, and the 
probable value of pearls in the future can there- 
fore be more definitely forecasted. Regard- 
ing these points I will draw largely from a 
personal letter from Mr. Ludwig Nissen, of 
New York : 
Average In brief, then, the cause for the advance in 
Annual pj-j^^g q{ pearls is simply that the supply is now 
Pearl absolutely inadequate to meet the demand. 
Fisheries The supply is chiefly from two sources, — the 
fisheries and the accumulated stores of the 
great Indian rajahs. The fisheries, the only 
primary source, are gradually being exhausted. 
In the last five years, statistics show that there 
has not been an average of ten million dollars' 
worth of pearls from all the fisheries combined, 
while much more than ten million dollars' worth 
of pearls are sold annually in New York City 
alone. Furthermore, there has not been a 
new pearl fishery discovered in the last fifty 
years. This exhaustion of the fisheries has been 
accelerated by the methods used. In former 
years divers went down to the bottom of the 




THE RAJAH OF DHOLPUR 

WHOSE PEARLS WERE VALUED AT $7, 500,000 



Courtesy of 
J. B. Lippincott Co. 



PEARLS 45 

sea to pick out and get the oysters which they Pearl 
thought might contain pearls, but since the " ^^'''^^ 
demand has so largely increased, divers are no 
longer employed. Grapples are used in their 
stead and are operated in the same way as 
dredging machines, scraping up everything, 
large and small. When these small oysters are 
opened and seed pearls taken, there is obviously 
no chance for the pearls to grow larger, "on 
the same principle that where one picks a 
peach blossom, one cannot pick a peach." In 
this manner the pearl fisheries are being robbed 
instead of being conserved, and the supply 
must continue to decrease. 

Drilled pearls are practically the only ones Drilled 
found on the European market today, and this "^^^^•*" 
fact points to the second source of supply. 
These drilled pearls are old pearls gradually 
accumulated and held for centuries by the pearl- 
loving princes of India. New pearls from the 
fisheries are never drilled, both because the 
gems may be desired for other purposes than 
for necklaces, and also because the moisture 
otherwise held within the hard outer skin can, 
in the case of drilled pearls, ooze out between 
the skins, the pearl little by little dries up and 
becomes lighter. The old pearls of the Indian 
princes were always drilled so that they might 



46 PEARLS 

be strung and thus carried with greater security 
by the owner. The fact that most of the pearls 
on the market are drilled shows again that we 
are dependent for our supply on these accumula- 
tions which are the result of centuries of pearl 
fishing, and until four or five years ago large 
numbers of these old pearls were lured from 
their ancient owners by the large prices offered. 
But now even this supply, limited as it must be, 
is beginning to dwindle. Lastly, great diffi- 
culties are now encountered in securing pearls 
from these sources. A pearl syndicate has 
Pearl been formed which collects all the pearls it can 
Syndicate ge^ure in all parts of the East, ships them to 
London and Paris, and then demands such high 
prices that often a whole year must be consumed 
in dickering before a bargain can finally be 
reached. Taken together, all these reasons 
explain why pearls have advanced so rapidly 
in price, and also why fine large pearls have 
increased most rapidly in value. It would 
also appear from this, that since the supply is 
so inadequate to the demand, pearls, and 
especially fine ones, must inevitably advance 
greatly in the future. 

In conclusion Mr. Nissen says that "the 
coming into the market of a really fine twenty 
to twenty-five grain pearl is almost as much 



PEARLS 47 

a sensation In the pearl market as the discovery 
of an unknown Rembrandt picture." 

The skin of an oriental pearl is formed like Skin of 
that of an onion, and very highly skilled work- ^^^^'-^ 
men can sometimes remove the outer layer of 
a pearl with a bad skin and thus produce a 
smaller pearl of good skin. This is very seldom 
done in America, however, and at best it Is al- 
ways a gamble whether the risk should be in- 
curred. Fresh water pearls, on the other hand, 
are not formed in layers, but in sections, and 
cannot be peeled. 

Pearls vary greatly In color and shade. Those 
of pure white or white with a rose pink tint, 
with good luster, are the most valuable of the 
regular colors. Creamy white is also desirable. 
Of the fancy colors black pearls of fine skin and 
shape are very valuable, as are also fine pink 
pearls. Button pearls are those with one side 
flat, while baroque pearls are always of odd and 
irregular shapes. 

Pearls may be Injured by acids or by being Colors of 
scratched, but are not harmed by pure water. -^^^^^ 
A string of fine pearls should always be carefully 
wiped and put away In soft cotton after being 
worn. They should be restrung quite often. 

As is well known, gems and particularly 
pearls, have from remote antiquity been re- 



48 PEARLS 

garded as of great value and have, therefore, 
been eagerly collected by kings and princes. 
Many pretty legends have arisen from this fact, 
especially among the rajahs of the East. An 
interesting example of this spontaneous and 
interesting literature of gems has been handed 
to me by Mr. Nissen, and is as follows: 

The Origin of the Superstition that 
Pearls Bring Tears 

The Princess of Travancore, who was stolen 
by a Rover of Kandy and lost in the storm called 
down upon his ships by a potent Brahman, is the 
heroine of the tale. Her body was recovered and 
with it came a great gift, as the legend thus relates. 
Pearl Now, when the elements were at peace again, 
^^^^ the King gave orders that certain fishermen of 
his people who were expert divers should explore 
the bottom of the sea where the ships of the 
Rover were destroyed. One of these discovered 
the body of the Princess and brought it to shore. 
And when they prepared it for burial the women 
found fastened upon one of the hands a shellfish, 
the two shells of which had closed upon a finger 
when it fell between them as they gaped. And 
when the shells were pried apart there rolled 
from between them a round bone, white and 
shining, and yet of a luster so soft and beautiful 



PEARLS 49 

that no man had seen the like. And the Brah- 
man, when he saw it, said: "Herein are the 
tears of Heaven which fell into the sea, con- 
gealed and have become a gem which is beyond 
price." And he named it "Pearl," and carried 
it to the King. Then the King, after he had 
heard the story of it, sent for the chief man of 
them that worked in gold and commanded him 
that he make for the pearl a setting most 
precious, and when it was done, he gave it to 
the Prince, his son, saying: "Above all things 
let this be first among the jewels of Travancore 
forever." And the Prince, when he looked upon 
it said, "The beauty of it is like the brightness 
of her eyes when they veiled themselves before 
my passion," and he prized it more than all the 
diamonds and rubies in his treasure house. 



The Tariff on Diamonds, Pearls, 
AND Precious Stones 

The recent Underwood Tariff which caused 
so many changes also brought into prominence 
new aspects of the diamond and gem importing 
business. For many years the tariff on polished 
diamonds and on other finished gems, including 
pearls, had been ten per cent. By the new 
tariff this was raised to twenty per cent, and 
rough diamonds, which heretofore had been 
on the free list, were made to bear a duty of 
ten per cent. 

The gem importers made a concerted effort 
to prevent the change in tariff, because they 
believed that the object of the Administration 
would be defeated rather than furthered by the 
changes. In other words, they believed that 
the government would secure less revenue rather 
than more, because of the added inducement to 
smugglers. However, the tariff Vv^as raised and 
the only recourse now open to legitimate dealers 
is to see, so far as possible, that no smuggling 
is done. The American Jewelers' Protective 



THE TARIFF ON GEMS 51 

Association was formed to accomplish this 
purpose. In the association are incorporated 
almost all the legitimate dealers and importers 
in gems and precious stones in the country. 
These concerns realize the danger of competition 
with gems smuggled into the country, and 
through the association they endeavor to aid 
the federal government by furnishing the cus- 
toms authorities with information which they 
alone, for obvious reasons, are in a position to 
obtain. For this purpose the association em- 
ploys detectives In Europe, whose work it is to 
know what important purchases are made and 
how they reach America. By these means 
smugglers have recently been detected and 
caught, who used the most ingenuous means 
for concealing the goods. 

The work of the association is further aided 
by a clause in the Administrative Act of the 
new tariff, which provides that, "where a 
seizure has been made, the burden of proof 
shall be upon the claimant." Under this pro- 
vision even regular buyers of precious stones 
must be prepared to furnish evidence that the 
stones were legitimately brought Into the 
country, since, if a smuggler is detected, not 
only will his goods be seized, but also the 
smuggled stones that he may have sold to his 



52 THE TARIFF ON GEMS 

customers. Dealers must, therefore, be on their 
guard to purchase stones only from reputable, 
responsible houses. 

In the matter of the relative advantages to 
individuals in purchasing diamond jewelry 
abroad and at home, Mr. Ludwig Nissen, 
president of the American Jewelers' Protec- 
tive Association, contributes some illuminating 
information. He says, in the first place, that 
he has never known a person to make as good 
purchases abroad as could have been made at 
home. Methods of doing business in these 
goods are entirely different on different sides 
of the Atlantic, and the customer not versed 
in the technicalities that enter into the valua- 
tion of jewels, must often fall more or less a 
prey to the merchant working under a different 
code of commercial honesty than exists here. 
Also it must be noted that the quality of 
precious stones sold in Europe is very often 
not that desired by Americans. 



Precious and Semiprecious 
Stones 

Rubies, emeralds, and sapphires are always 
classed as precious stones. Many other gems 
should be termed "precious stones" because of 
their rarity and beauty. Especially should they 
be termed so in times when they are much in 
vogue, and because of this demand through 
fashion have advanced very largely in price. 

The question may be summed up by saying 
that in addition to diamonds, rubies, sapphires, 
and emeralds, very fine specimens of many of 
the s^-called semiprecious stones should be 
considered precious stones, perhaps at all times, 
and unquestionably so at times when there exists 
a fashionable demand for them and they have 
in consequence attained great value. 



The Ruby 

Composition Rubies and Sapphires are scientifically the 
same stone, differing only in color. Corundum, 
the predominating mineral of both, is composed 
of nearly pure alumina. The coloring substance 
which differentiates rubies and sapphires is 
believed to be chromium. In the scale of 
hardness the gem ranks as No. 9 and is thus 
the hardest of all substances excepting the 
diamond. Color is the most important factor 
in determining the value of the ruby. The 
gem is always more or less imperfect, but its 
freedom from bad imperfections is also im- 
portant. Since fine rubies of all sizes are 
extremely rare, the price increases very rapidly 
with an increase in size, and a fine ruby of more 
Value than four carats commands an extraordinary 
price and can be said to be the most valuable of 
all gems, exceeding greatly a diamond of equal 
weight. A ruby of eleven carats is reported, some 
twelve years ago, to have been sold for ^80,000, 
but this is almost the limit of size in which rubies 
Color are ever found. The color varies from the lightest 



RUBIES 55 

rose tint to the deepest carmine, but the rarest 
and most valuable shade is that known as Pigeon 
Blood. This is the color of arterial blood. The 
ruby has always been greatly admired, and Rus- 
kin calls the ruby in the British Crown the 
most beautiful gem he has ever seen. 

The finest rubies come from Burmah and 
are termed Oriental Rubies. Siam also pro- 
duces rubies, but of a much darker red and of 
very much less value. Rubies are also found in 
Ceylon, India, Australia, Brazil, and occa- 
sionally in America. 

Rubies, as well as sapphires, are sometimes Cutting 
cut in India in cabochon form and are afterwards 
recut in Europe. The style is often cushion 
shape, with step cutting. They are also cut 
round and pear shape, similar to the cutting of 
a diamond of these shapes. The stones are 
cut thick or shallow to deepen or diminish the 
color of the stone. 

Many years ago scientists succeeded in pro- Synthetic 
ducing minute crystals of rubies and sapphires ^^^^^-'" 
which could not be distinguished from the rubies 
of nature even by the microscope. These speci- 
mens were, however, very small and of no com- 
mercial value. These minute crystals are the only 
truly synthetic rubies which have ever been made. 

The scientific ruby now on the market is 



56 RUBIES 

simply a chemical product made by fusing 

powdered alumina, colored to imitate the gem 

by the addition of a metallic oxide. This 

scientific ruby, because it is better and cheaper, 

has largely taken the place of the reconstructed 

ruby, made by melting small fragments of real 

rubies. These chemical products when dyed 

blue pass in a similar way for sapphires. 

How fine All these imitations of the true corundum 

Imitation ^ems can be detected by an expert, most of 

Rubies are ° i • i , . . . , 

Detected them at iirst sight and without hesitation. And 

even in the much rarer cases when the imita- 
tion approaches the real stone very closely, the 
former can always be detected under a micro- 
scope. In the real, fine parallel lines of structural 
strain are seen and the little enclosures, or 
bubbles, are irregular in shape, whereas in the 
imitation the lines of strain are curved and the 
bubbles round. 

While scientific rubies and sapphires have 
a distinct use as ornaments, they can never 
affect the sale of the real gems any more than 
is the case with Imitation pearls. Aside from 
the fact that the imitation can always be ulti- 
mately detected, the person desiring to pur- 
chase a ruby, as a ruby, and as a work of beauty 
and distinction wants a gem which he knows is 
one of nature's rarities and is therefore possessed 



RUBIES S7 

of intrinsically great value. A good illustration 
of this fundamental feeling is given by Mr. Zell, 
who says, "Many perfect copies of the Sistine 
Madonna have been made by good artists, 
the original is priceless, the copies at the most 
are worth a few hundred dollars, — this is the 
relation of a gem made in nature's laboratory 
to one produced by the chemist." 



The Sapphire 

The Sapphire is the other great branch of the 

Corundum family of gems. It differs from the 

ruby only in color. 

Color Sapphires vary in tint from the lightest blue 

to a deep b-ackish blue, and, similar to rubies, 

are valued chiefly according to their color. The 

soft, velvety blue most approaching the blue 

of the cornflower of England, which is known in 

our country as the bachelor's button, is the 

most valued color in sapphires. The best 

stones should show this color by artificial as 

well as by natural light. 

Value of Although choice sapphires are uncommon, 

% ^^^ fine large stones are more frequently found than 

rubies of similar size, and consequently the price 

does not advance with an increase in size so 

rapidly as it does with rubies. 

Sapphires are found in various places, each 

locality producing its distinctive shade. 

Where finest The finest specimens are termed Cashmere 

Sapphires sapphires, and occur in the Himalaya Moun- 
are round r r ■> ... 

tains of the State of Kashmir in India. These 




GEM CUTTING IN CEYLON 



SAPPHIRES 59 

gems possess a velvety luster, and a vivid color 
of the true cornflower shade, without the slightest 
trace of green or black. 

Another important locality for sapphires is 
Burmah. These Burmah or oriental sapphires 
have a much darker shade of blue. While they 
bear the name Burmah, most of the stones come 
from the adjacent country of Siam. The most 
important mine is the Bo Pie Rim mine, in 
Battambang. 

Ceylon produces sapphires of very light 
shades, ranging from delicate pale gray blue to 
purplish blue. 

The sapphires found in Australia are generally 
poor in color, and although fine gems occur they 
are exceedingly rare. 

In our own country fine sapphires have been Montana 
found in Yogo Gulch, Montana. These stones Sflpj>Azr<?j- 
have a fine electric blue tint, and the larger 
sizes which are occasionally found are very 
valuable, approaching in price the oriental. 

Most of the Montana sapphires which are 
found near Helena are small, — one carat and 
less, — but are of a very uniform color and are 
especially suited to be cut into round stones. 
The Montana sapphires have been known since 
1865, but the mines were first systematically 
worked in 1891. Since that time they have 



6o SAPPHIRES 

always been by far the most valuable gem- 
mineral resource of the United States. 
^tar Sapphire An exceedingly beautiful and interesting 

Cutting and variation in eems is the star sapphire and star 
T OTtnatton 

ruby. These are very valuable when the star 

marking is well defined and shows a fine, six- 
pointed star, which is always more clearly 
defined when seen under an artificial light. 
Star sapphires and rubies are always cut 
cabochon, with the center of the star at the 
apex of the cabochon. What causes the for- 
mation of the star is not definitely known, but 
it is probably due to the presence of a foreign 
substance in the sapphire or ruby. 
Sapphires In history both these gems are of great 
tn History interest. Rubies are mentioned in the Bible 
in the Proverbs and in the Book of Job. The 
Greeks and Romans ascribe to the ruby the 
power of emitting light in darkness; the Hindus 
describe the abodes of their gods as being 
lighted with rubies. 

Sapphires were also known in ancient times, 
which is attested by the fact that the word 
sapphire is nearly the same in all languages. 

The gem was believed to be a destroyer of 
poison and a powerful charm, protecting the 
wearer from fever. 

Dr. O. C. Farrington states that "Burton, the 



SAPPHIRES 6i 

African traveler, is said always to have carried 
a star sapphire about with him as a means of 
gaining respect from the barbarous peoples 
among whom he journeyed. The savages 
believed that the stone must be a talisman of 
great power and feared to incur the owner's 
enmity." 



The Emerald 

Composition Beryl is a mineral known to gem lovers under 

2nd Hardness , , . ~ , i j p 

of Emeralds several dinerent names, the most valued oi 

which is the Emerald. The mineral beryl com- 
posing the various gems is practically the same 
in composition, hardness, and other properties, 
and the gems may be differentiated only by 
their color. In composition beryl is a silicate 
of aluminum and glucinum. On the scale of 
hardness beryl is graded jy^ to 8, and is thus 
much softer than the diamond, ruby, or sapphire. 
It is owing to this fact that the emerald scratches 
easily and that care must be taken that when 
worn it is not subject to chafing by diamonds 
or other harder gems. 
Color and Beryl as a mineral is of quite common occur- 
rence, and the crystals of the mineral in its 
cruder form often grow to enormous size. 
There is one such single crystal preserved in 
the Boston Museum of Natural History, which 
is three and one half feet long and three feet 
wide and weighs several tons. 

Beryl in this common form occurs in many 



EMERALDS 63 

localities, but the mineral in its rarer form of 
emerald is comparatively of very rare occur- 
rence. The emerald or green beryl, as it should 
be scientifically known, has long been the most 
highly prized of the green gems. In brilliancy 
it exceeds all other green gems excepting only 
the very rare green sapphire. The most valuable 
specimens exhibit a vivid grass-green shade, 
and it is to this color that they owe their great 
value. Other considerations, such as freedom 
from imperfections, are quite secondary in 
determining the value of the stone. In fact a 
perfect emerald is almost never found, and this 
circumstance has passed into an Eastern simile 
which runs, "As scarce as a perfect emerald," 
this being a symbol for the acme of rarity. The Weight 
emerald is light in weight and an emerald of a 
given size will be about a third larger than a 
diamond and forty-five per cent larger than a 
sapphire of equal weight. The distinctive color 
of the emerald is probably due to a trace of 
chroTdium in its composition. 

The largest source of supply of fine emeralds Where most 
is a mine in Muso, a locality about seventy-five ^° , , 
miles northwest of Bogota, in the United States are Found 
of Colombia. This mine has been worked 
almost continuously since 1558, but the wildness 
of the region and the barbarity of the aborigines 



64 EMERALDS 

has made the working of the mine, at least until 
recently, quite precarious. 
Form of Fine emeralds are generally cut cushion shape 
Cutting ^j^j^ g|-gp cutting, and in the East are often 
cut cahochon. Fine emeralds have advanced 
very rapidly during the last few years, both on 
account of the growing demand of fashion for the 
gems and the scarcity of really fine specimens. 
Many interesting stories are told of the first 
emeralds taken by the early conquerors of Peru 
to Spain, and a certain Joseph D'Acosta is said 
to have returned to Spain in 1587 with two chests 
of emeralds, each of which weighed over one 
hundred pounds. The truth of this story may 
be questioned, but it is a fact that the stones 
were highly prized and much used by the Incas 
and Aztecs in the extraordinary civilization 
which once existed in Peru. The emerald was 
highly prized by the ancients and by gem lovers 
of the middle ages, and this accounts for many 
interesting legends and superstitions relating 
to the gem. 



The a qjj a m a r i n e 

Aquamarine is another of the gems composed Colors 
of Beryl. It occurs in colors of light sky blue, 
greenish blue, or greenish yellow. The light 
sky-blue stone is the one of the most value, and 
is very brilliant, especially by artificial light. 
Recently aquamarines have become more and 
more popular, and this is doubtless due to the 
discovery of many fine masses of the crystal. 
Some of the finest of these are in Siberia, India, 
Brazil, and in many different localities in the Where^ 
United States, notably in North Carolina. The 
color of the aquamarine may be altered by 
various artificial means, and experiments along 
this line have been undertaken for many years 
by some of the German universities, resulting 
in the discovery of a method by which in rare 
cases the less valuable greenish-blue variety may 
be changed to a shade of light sky blue of great 
value without altering the stone to any per- 
ceptible degree. Because of this, it is thought 
that the coloring matter in the gem must be 
organic. 



Found 



66 AQUAMARINES 

Biblical T]\Q history of the aquamarine is not as com- 
entton ^^qiq as that of the more valued stones. A 
notable biblical mention of the stone is, however, 
found in the Song of Solomon, 

"O daughters of Jerusalem, 
This is my beloved, and this is my friend. 
His hands are as gold rings set with the beryl." 

In the middle ages, beryl was supposed to give 
its wearer cheerfulness and to compose the 
heart and mind. It was called, in fact, the 
"sweet-tempered stone," and these qualities 
might perhaps account for the presence of a 
piece of blue beryl in the English crown. 



The Tourmaline 

Tourmaline Is like beryl, a mineral which is Brilliancy 
in itself of great interest, especially to scientists, 
and one which in smaller crystals sometimes 
attains such beauty of coloring and brilliancy 
as to become of rare charm as a gem. 

Tourmaline has always puzzled scientific Its 
authorities in determining its composition, and ^^'^^o-^*'*"** 
in lack of a concise or authoritative definition 
of the chemicals composing it, we will quote the 
following description of its composition given 
by Ruskin, in his "Ethics of the Dust": "A 
little of everything, there's always flint and 
clay and magnesia in it; and the black is iron 
according to its fancy; and there's boracic 
acid, if you know what that is, and if you don't, 
I cannot tell you today, and it doesn't signify, 
and there's potash and soda; and on the whole, 
the chemistry of it is more like a medieval 
doctor's prescription than the making of a 
respectable mineral." 

As we noted at first, tourmaline as a mineral 
is quite distinct from its rarer gem species. 



68 TOURMALINES 

Its Colors As a mineral it occurs in an opaque form, 
colored either black or brown, and is quite 
common as a rock-forming mineral, resembling 
somewhat in its occurrence in this form, horn- 
blend. These crystals often possess strange 
and beautiful qualities, notably that of having 
a strong dichroism, that is, the same crystals 
often have different colors, being at one end 
red and at the other end green; or, on the other 
hand, the crystal may show a blue center, then 
a colorless zone, and then one red and one 
green, and furthermore the crystal will always 
show two different colors according as it is 
viewed from one angle or another. The beauty 
of these changing colors is often very striking, 
and is the chief cause which has led the tour- 
maline to be widely appreciated as a gem. 

In the cutting of the gem skill is necessary in 
order to so cut the specimen that it will exhibit 
its most beautiful color. The most valued 
colors are, as a rule, dark red, sometimes almost 
approaching that of the ruby, and dark green 
shading to blue or yellow. 
Tourmaline One of the chief localities for the mining of 
^^^■^ the gem tourmaline is Paris, Maine. The dis- 
covery of this source was mainly accidental. 
Two boys of the neighborhood, Elisha L. Hamlin 
and Ezekiel Holmes, had for some time been 



TOURM JUNES 69 

interested In the study of the minerals which 
were of frequent occurrence In the fields about 
their homes. One day in the fall of 1820, after 
hunting some time for specimens, they were 
attracted by the gleam of something green at 
the roots of a tree. They eagerly secured the 
mineral, and found it to be a beautiful green 
tourmaline. However, It was late In the day 
and their explorations could not go further. 
Then chance further delayed the discovery of 
more of the beautiful crystals, for that night It 
snowed heavily, and no further work could be 
done in the frozen ground until the following 
spring. But with the first thaw the boys worked 
with great Interest, and soon secured many fine 
gems. Since that time the locality has been exten- 
sively worked, and some of the gems taken from 
it have found places in the crowns of kings. Ten 
years ago It was estimated that ^50,000 worth of 
tourmalines had been taken from this one spot. 

Other localities for minjng tourmalines are 
California, which furnishes in particular the 
red tourmaline, Brazil, Siberia, and Ceylon. 

Since tourmalines are of relatively recent dis- 
covery there are no historical associations coupled 
with them, and no legends are related of them, 
although the story of their strange discovery and 
the beauty of the gem would seem to deserve this. 



The Alexandrite 

Discovery This gem was first found in Takovaya, in the 
Urai Mountains of Siberia, in 1830, on the 
anniversary of the birth of Alexander II, Czar 
of Russia, and because of that circumstance and 
since green and red — the colors of the gem — 
are also Russia's national colors, it was named, 
in honor of the Czar, Alexandrite. 
Hardness The mineral composing the gem is Chrysoberyly 
and Color ^j^jch resembles beryl in composition but is 
remarkable for its hardness, being graded 8.5. 
The alexandrite shows ordinarily an emerald- 
green color, but changes by artificial light to a 
beautiful red, and has, therefore, the unique 
property of resembling somewhat "an emerald 
by day and a ruby by night." Much of the 
mineral is found, but transparent pieces which 
can be used as gems are of very rare occur- 
rence, and Alexandrites are therefore very valu- 
able, besides being unique in the beauty of 
their double colors. 
Cats-eye A more common variety of chrysoberyl is the 
gem known as Cafs-eye, which always shows 



ALEXANDRITE 71 

the familiar band of color in the center. Most 
of the stones are cut cabochon, in order to best 
display this property. Most of the cat's-eyes 
now come from Brazil and Ceylon. 



The Opal 

"The opal, when pure and uncut in its native 
rock, presents the most lovely colors seen in 
the world, except those of clouds," says Ruskin, 
in his lecture on "Color." The mineral com- 
posing the opal does not, however, always show 
the brilliancy of colors which we usually associ- 
Composition ^^^ ^.^j^ ^^^ ^^^^ Chemically, it is an oxide of 

silica, and is therefore much similar to quartz. 
As a mineral, opal is quite common, and one 
of its interesting occurrences is in the Yellowstone 
Park, where the geyser and hot spring forma- 
tions are composed almost entirely of this silicate 
known here as geyserite. It may be said, there- 
fore, that the waters of the park build up cones 
of opal and fall into opal basins. In the rarer 
form in which it displays its many fascinating 
colors the gem is of comparatively rare occur- 
rence. The most noted and most ancient mines 
are those of Czernowitza, in northern Hungary. 
It is well established that the Romans obtained 
their opals from these mines. At the present 
day, however, this ancient source has become 



OPALS 73 

superseded by the more abundant mines in 
New South Wales. 

Why the opal displays so many brilliant 
colors has been somewhat of a riddle to scientists. 
The most probable theory of the varied coloring 
is that it is formed by strata in the stone, 
containing different percentages of water which 
break up the ray of light similarly as a prism 
does. The most beautiful and fascinating opals 
are the dark ones, known as black opals. These 
come from Australia, and since they are in 
great demand today, command large prices. 

In history the opal has always been famous Superstitions 
and was very highly prized by the Romans. 
In contradiction to the superstitions that are 
now associated with the gem by some people 
the opal was then regarded as having the virtues 
of all the stones whose colors it displayed. It 
was supposed to cheer the despondent and was 
in general a symbol of hope. And like the 
turquoise, it was believed to change color if its 
wearer grew ill and regain it when he recovered. 



The Am eth yst 

The common mineral quartz in one of its 
rarer forms is known to us as amethyst. It is 
Color, etc. the only gem which displays a beautiful violet 
color. This color is thought to be caused by 
organic matter within the crystal, and this 
theory is supported by the fact that the 
amethyst when heated first changes to yellow 
and then entirely loses its color. 
Where The chief sources of supply of amethysts are 
Found j^Q^ located in Siberia and Brazil, although a 
very few stones have occasionally been found 
in the State of Maine. The finest stones must 
r have a rich, dark violet color, while the lighter 

shades are of much less value. In former times 
the amethyst was much more highly valued 
than at present, owing, no doubt, to the relative 
scarcity of the gem at that time. But it must 
ever continue to be highly prized for the in- 
trinsic beauty of its violet color. 

The amethyst has with many other gems 
a long history. Its name is derived from 
two Greek words, meaning "not to inebriate," 



AMETHYSTS 75 

indicating that It was the belief of the ancients 
that anything drunk from cups of this mineral 
could never produce any deleterious effect. 
During the middle ages it long figured as a 
pious or episcopal gem and was long sacred to 
the Church. 



The Moonstone 

The moonstone is a form of felspar, and 
comes chiefly from Ceylon. There it occurs in 
large pieces in clay. When properly polished 
the gem exhibits a beautiful pale-blue light 
coming from within. The cause of this light is 
hard to explain, but is thought to be a reflection 
from minute tabular crystals arranged in parallel 
position in the stone. Moonstone, like most of 
the more or less opaque gems, is usually cut 
cabochon form. The stone is now becoming 
more and more popular. 



The T u r qjj o i s e 

This mineral Is remarkable among all the 
gem minerals In not being transparent and In 
never occurring in the form of a fine crystal. 
In composition turquoise Is a hydrus phosphate 
of aluminum. The gem is rather soft; Its grade 
is No. 6. 

The ancient supply of fine turquoise came from Sources of 
a mine not far from NIshapur, in Persia, and ^'"■PP^y 
the mining of the gems in that locality Is said 
to have supported the entire population of the 
town. The mines must be very ancient. A 
description of one was written in the year 
1300 A.D. and according to a popular tradition, 
one of the mines, known as Isaac's Mine, was 
opened by Isaac, son of Abraham. At the 
present time most of the turquoise come from 
New Mexico. These mines also are very old 
and were first worked by the Spaniards, it Is 
said, by consent of the Indians, who still 
inhabited the land. 

The predominating color of the turquoise is Color 
green, while on the other hand the color of 



78 TOU RQUOISE 

most value is blue, and most turquoise are not 
free from the imperfection of turning green by 
exposure during the course of time. 

Turquoise are sometimes artificially stained, 
but this can be easily detected, and is of little in- 
terest to the real admirer of this interesting gem. 

Owing to their early discovery the turquoise 
has always been prized by Eastern people, and 
amongst oriental people is still considered of 
great value. Superstition, as usual, mingles 
in this estimate of value, and it is stated by good 
authority that turquoise are still used in the 
East as a remedy for dyspepsia and insanity. 
It has also been supposed since earliest times 
to bring its wearer good fortune, and one of the 
proverbs of the Oriental is, "A turquoise given 
by a loving hand carries with it happiness and 
good fortune." 




SCENE IN AZURE TURQUOISE MINE, NEW MEXICO 



The Chrysolite 

Chrysolite as a name for gems is unique, in Peridot 
that it seems to have been used for several q,- • 
gems in ancient biblical times, but now appears 
to have disappeared and given place to several 
other names for the mineral, of which Peridot 
is used for designating the deep olive-green 
variety. Olivine when the mineral is yellowish 
green, and Chrysolite only when the gem is 
of a lighter or golden-yellow color. The name 
chrysolite means "gold stone." Aside from 
the beauty of the colors afforded by the three 
gems. Peridot, Olivine, and Chrysolite, the 
origin of the mineral is perhaps its most in- 
teresting property. Although many of the gems 
are now known, it is very hard to determine 
exactly where they have been found. They 
are reported to come from Burmah, Ceylon, 
Egypt, and from Brazil, but it is impossible 
to ascertain the exact locality. Because of this 
obscurity, Kunz states that nearly all the chryso- 
lite used in modern times has been taken out 
of old jewelry, and it is, therefore, probable 



8o CHRYSOLITE 

that the old localities are either forgotten or 
exhausted. There is, however, one very striking 
source for the gem. The mineral is known to 
be an essential constituent of meteorites, and 
crystals are often found in these masses large 
enough to be of value as gems. It is thus an 
interesting fact that chrysolite is the only gem 
which comes to us from spaces of which we 
know nothing, actually beyond the earth. 
Mention Chrysolite has, as I have stated, long been 
^^^l^ known, and is frequently mentioned in the 
Bible and in ancient literature, but much of 
the mineral then known as chrysolite was in 
reality topaz. An interesting fable of its 
discovery in those early times is related. Dio- 
dones Siculus says of the stone, "That it was 
not discernible by day, but was bright at 
night, so it could be seen by the patrol. The 
latter would cover the luminous spot with a 
vase, and the next day come and cut out the 
rock at the place indicated. After being 
polished a beautiful chrysolite would appear." 



The Spinel 

Spinel is a mineral somewhat similar to Composition 
ruby, but as spinel gems are quite different ^u j 
from true rubies, so the mineral spinel is quite 
distinct from the mineral of the true ruby, which 
is corundum. In composition spinel is almost 
wholly a magnesia aluminate, and in hardness is 
much softer than the ruby, being No. 8, or 
no harder than the topaz, while the ruby is 
No. 9. 

Spinel occurs in various colors, but the most Black 
valuable color is red, called the spinel ruby, ^^v^^ 
From the fact that the spinel so closely ap- 
proaches the ruby in appearance, it has often 
been confounded with it, and in cases of fraud 
spinel is sometimes sold in place of the corundum 
ruby. In its own sphere, however, the spinel is 
a beautiful gem, and while never found in very 
large sizes, has yet been so highly prized that 
it is found amongst the crown jewels of several 
nations. The ruby of the "Black Prince," 
which is shown among the crown jewels of 
England, is a notable example of spinel. 



82 SPINELS 

Where As spinel Is related to corundum in composi- 
tion and appearance so it is also often found 
associated with it in nature. The gem gravels 
of Ceylon, Siam, Australia, and Brazil contain 
spinel rubies, and the true corundum rubies side 
by side, but the commercial source of spinel 
rubies is now almost entirely a locality called 
Badakschan, in Afghanistan, on the banks of 
the Oxus. According to a Persian tradition 
these mines were first disclosed when the moun- 
tain was rent in twain by an earthquake. 
Its Colors Besides the ruby spinel the mineral occurs 
in several other colors, which may be used as 
gems, viz. : red, orange, green, blue, indigo, and 
also black and white. Colorless spinels are occa- 
sionally passed in cases of fraud as diamonds, 
but the deceit may be readily detected. 

While the mineral spinel may be used as a 
gem in all the colors in which it occurs, the 
only shades which are abundant enough to 
deserve special notice, aside from the red, are 
the blue and black. Blue spinel resembles the 
sapphire in color, although it is somewhat 
paler. It comes chiefly from Ceylon and Bur- 
mah, where it is found with the ruby spinel. 
The black spinel is known as Ceylonite and 
comes also from Ceylon. 

In ancient times spinel rubies and corundum 



SPINELS 83 

rubies were equally well known, and the two Legend 
were probably often confounded. Dr. O. C. 
Farrington, in his delightful book, relates as 
usual some interesting superstitions regarding 
the spinel. In the middle ages, for instance, it 
was believed that, "if one touched with this gem 
the four corners of a house, orchard, or vine- 
yard, they would be j)rotected from Hghtning, 
storms, and the like." 



Hardness 



The Topaz 

Topaz is a mineral which has been known and 
prized since biblical times for its remarkable 
clearness and transparency. Its decline in 
popularity some time ago was due mainly to the 
fact that many far inferior stones were wrongly 
termed topaz. The real topaz is now, however, 
being more and more appreciated. 
Composition The real topaz is a silicate of aluminum and is 
rff^f remarkably heavy, and is also quite hard, being 
No. 8. The usual color of the gem is yellow, but 
topaz are also found in many other shades. As 
is the case with aquamarine, the color may 
often be altered by artificial means. The yellow 
topaz of Brazil may, for example, be changed 
to a pale rose pink by heating, and this is often 
done. The heating and cooling of the gem 
must be done very carefully and slowly, but the 
operation presents no difficulty to an expert, 
and the pink color when once secured is abso- 
lutely permanent. Crystals of the topaz mineral 
often grow to large size, and occasionally 
specimens of sufficient clearness to be used as 



TOPAZ 85 

gems are found of remarkable size. Perhaps the 
largest cut topaz is the one presented to Pope 
Leo, in 1902, which weighed nearly four pounds. 

The most abundant source of the gem is an Where 
island called Topazios, in the Red Sea, and ^^'^'^^ 
from this word is formed the present name of 
the gem. In modern times the largest supply of 
topaz has come from Brazil. It is here usually 
found in pebbles amongst the gravel of streams. 
Ordinarily occurring as a matrix in talcose rock 
of mica slate, the action of the stream has worn 
away the softer matrix, and thus disclosed the 
topaz in a round and worn form, but entirely 
free from the matrix, and known in the region 
as pingos d^aqua, meaning drops of water. They 
are also called by the Portuguese ^^ slaveys 
diamonds, " and occasionally a fine example will 
approximate in appearance a diamond; in fact, 
a stone in the crown of Portugal reputed to be a 
diamond of 1680 carats weight, and called the 
Breganza, is probably a topaz of exceptional 
clearness and beauty. 

Another noted locality for topaz are the 
Imperial mines of Russia, in the Ural Moun- 
tains. Superb topaz are cut from the crystals 
found there, but the finest examples are now 
preserved for the Imperial collection. Many 
localities in the United States also afford topaz. 



86 TOPAZ 

Mention In biblical times topaz was a very highly 
*R"1/ pi'ized gem, and in Revelations is mentioned as 
forming one of the gates of the Holy City. It 
is also related that the King of Tyre wore a 
topaz. However, the gems spoken of under 
this name were probably chrysolite, while what 
the ancients termed chrysolite would now be 
known as topaz. 
Legend A charming legend is told of a topaz supposed 
to be presented by Lady Hildegarde, wife of 
Theodoric of Holland, to a monastery in her 
native town. It is said to have emitted at 
night a light so brilliant that prayers could be 
read in the chapel, where it was kept, without 
the aid of a light. 



The Garnet 

Garnet is a gem mineral which varies greatly Names of 
in composition, and in its various forms is ^^^^^ 
known under the different names of almandite 
or almandine, pyrope, rhodolite, cape ruby, and 
carbuncle. The color is usually a dark red, but 
the mineral also occurs in green, rose, and 
brown tints. The mineral is a silicate, and the 
other components of its composition determine 
which particular variety of garnet it is. Gar- 
nets often occur as small grains in beach sand 
because the rocks in which the minerals occur 
are more easily weathered away than the garnet 
which thus remains in the form of sand. The 
garnet crystals are then always found near the 
water's edge, since the specific gravity of the 
mineral is high and the waves can, therefore, 
carry it only a short distance up the beach. 
The name garnet comes probably from the 
Latin word granatus, meaning like a grain. It 
is said to have arisen because the crystals were 
thought to resemble in color and size the seeds 
of the pomegranate. 



88 GARNETS 

The garnet most valued as a gem is termed 
almanditey and is of a rich cherry, claret, or 
blood-red color. These stones were first mined 
near the city of Alabanda, in Asia Minor, and 
the same source was much exploited by the 
Romans in their day. The stones are still known 
as Syrian garnets. This same mineral occurs in 
large quantities near the mouth of the Stickeen 
River, Alaska, but is not of sufficient trans- 
parency to be greatly used as a gem. 

Another variety, and probably the most 
numerous one of the garnet mineral, is known as 
pyrope. It does not vary much in color from 
almandite. The mineral is almost always 
found in eruptive or volcanic rocks, and is a 
constituent of the diamond-bearing blueground 
of South Africa. From this fact the finer 
specimens of the gem are termed in the trade 
cape rubies. 

The home of the pyrope is, however, Bohemia. 
Although the stones were known in this region 
for centuries it was not until after Karlsbad 
had become an international center that interest 
was taken in the scientific mining and polishing 
of the gems. Since then the fame of these 
garnets and their usefulness in the arts when 
not of sufficient fineness for jewels has led to a 
thorough exploitation of the field, and Bohemia 



GARNETS 89 

may be considered to have been for many years 
the garnet center of the world. As has been 
said, these garnets should technically be called 
pyrope, which is derived from the Greek word 
meaning "fire," a name given them in ancient 
times because of their brilliant color. 

In America some fine garnets have been found. American 
These are termed, however, rhodolite, or Ameri- 
can rubies, and are really much like almandite. 
They occur most abundantly in Arizona, New 
Mexico, and southern Colorado. They are 
especially abundant among anthills, being re- 
moved by the ants because their size stands in 
the way of the excavations of the busy insects. 
They are gathered largely by the Navajo 
Indians and are sold to American gem dealers. 
In color and brilliancy they often surpass the 
African gems known as cape rubies. 

The word carbuncle is often popularly used to Carbuncle 
designate a garnet. This, however, is a mis- 
nomer. Ordinarily any fine red stone cut en 
cabochon might be termed a carbuncle. This 
latter name came from the Roman word 
carbunculus, which in turn is a derivation of 
the Latin word carbo, meaning coal, and was 
at that time bestowed on any stone displaying 
the fire-like color and reflection which is char- 
acteristic of the various stones now termed 



90 GARNETS 

garnets. As all these stones in ancient times 

were cut in the round shape, the name has come 

down to us as carbuncle, and its association 

with the garnet has always been preserved. 

However, scientifically carbuncle refers merely 

to the shape of the stone, and not at all to its 

composition or mineralogical variety. 

One of Oldest The garnet is one of the oldest stones known. 

Semiprecious j^^ some of the most ancient mummies dis- 
btones Known . 

covered m rLgypt are found necklaces and 

other jewels containing garnets. And under 
the name carbuncle the garnet is mentioned in 
the literature of all ages, being valued chiefly 
for the brilliant fiery light which it gives forth. 
According to the Talmud, the only light which 
Noah had in the Ark was afforded by a car- 
buncle. 



The Zircon 

Zircon Is a mineral possessing a very hard, It^ Color 
brilliant luster, and is therefore eminently quali- 
fied to be used as a gem. The mineral occurs in 
various colors. Tints of brown, violet, and 
green are known as Xircon, the red as Hyacinth, 
the yellow Jacinth, and the grayish white and 
white, Jargoon. The latter name is said to have 
been given the white substance because through 
its great luster it resembled the diamond, but is 
really of much less value. 

Transparent crystals of zircon suitable for Where 
gems come almost wholly from the Island of °"^ 
Ceylon, where they occur in the gem gravels 
which also contain rubies, sapphires, tourmalines, 
etc. The zircons occur in the form of rolled 
pebbles mostly of comparatively small size. 

Zircon is also found in many other localities. It 
is said as many as one hundred and twenty differ- 
ent places are known where the mineral can be 
found, but in all of these the supply is very limited. 

The Zircon has no history, but its great bril- 
liancy and fine colors render it a most attractive 
if but little known gem. 



Lapis Lazuli 

An Ancient The gems known as lapis lazuli are only the 
finest specimens of the comparatively abundant 
mineral of the same name. This stone was a 
gem of the Greek, Roman, and Hebrew scrip- 
tures, and throughout ancient times was very 
highly prized. Pliny likens it to the blue sky 
adorned with stars. Large quantities of it 
worked by artisans into various forms are found 
in early Egyptian tombs. The Chinese have 
also long held it in high esteem. 

The Asiatic mines from which the mineral 
first came were visited by Marco Polo, in 
the year 1271 a.d. 

The color of the mineral is blue. It is quite 
opaque. The most prized shade is ultramarine, 
but the stone occurs also in paler tints. Usually 
grains of pyrite are scattered through the stones 
and from this effect Pliny was able to liken it to^ 
a "starry sky." The name lapis lazuli means 
blue stone. 
Where The best lapis lazuli now comes from Badak- 
Found g(;iian, in the northeastern part of Afghanistan. 



LAPIS LAZULI 93 

The mining is done in the most primitive form. 
Huge fires are built on the rocks, and water is 
then thrown on them. Owing to the sudden 
cooling the rocks split up and can then readily be 
excavated. The yield, however, is small, and 
the price even for exceptionally fine specimens 
is low. China and other parts of Asia consume 
most of the supply. 

The color of the stone, however, gives it a 
peculiar charm, and the walls of the Palace 
Zarskoe-Selo, Russia, built by the order of 
Catherine II, were entirely lined with slabs of 
lapis lazuli and amber. The stone was believed 
by the Greeks and Romans to have strong 
medicinal properties, and when pulverized was 
often used as a tonic. Even as late as the 
sixteenth century it was supposed to be a cure 
for melancholia. 



HiDDENITE AND KuNZITE 

Where Spodumene is the mineral composing two 
round comparatively new and charming gems, Hid- 
denite and Kunzite. Ordinarily spodumene is of 
a white or gray color, and possesses no great 
value as a gem, but in its rarer form as hiddenite 
it possesses a beautiful emerald-green color. 
The only deposit of hiddenite known was found 
accidentally by Mr. W. E. Hidden, through the 
overturning of a tree on a farm near Stony 
Point, Alexander County, North Carolina. The 
mineral is somewhat hard to polish, owing 
to the danger of splitting, due to its marked 
prismatic cleavage. Although the stone pos- 
sesses beautiful qualities as a gem and com- 
mands a high price it is unfortunately little 
known, as the mine at Stony Point, North 
Carolina, was reported to have been exhausted 
some ten years ago and no fresh supply of 
hiddenite has ever been discovered. 
Kunzite Kunzite is one of the newest gem minerals 
Found known. It was discovered during the course of 
some mining for tourmaline, near Pala, San 



HIDDEN I TE AND KUNZITE 95 

Diego County, California, and was named in 
honor of Dr. Kunz, who was for many years 
the special agent of the United States Govern- 
ment, and compiled the official document con- 
cerning gems, appearing annually, together 
with other reports, under the name of the "Min- 
eral Resources of the United States." 

Kunzite is dichroic, and possesses a charming Color 
and almost indescribable light-blue color, which 
has been characterized as deep rose lilac and 
delicate pink amethystine. The same crystal 
displays two different tints when viewed at 
different angles. 

The mineral is now highly prized as a gem, and 
its beautiful and delicate color make it entirely 
unique. Unfortunately the supply is very 
limited. The purely chance discovery of such 
a new and beautiful gem forms what might 
almost be regarded as a romance. Think of 
the chance conjunction in nature of the peculiar 
chemical properties forming the mineral, then 
the centuries of the infinitesimal growth of the 
crystals from these solutions, and finally when 
the whole had reached its last stage of per- 
fection, its chance discovery through the 
prick of the miner's pickaxe. 





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